7.  RESOURCES FOR FURTHER INFORMATION

Resources on case studies, trends, and impacts of urbanization

For the case studies, Web sites for general information are listed at the end of each section (e.g., Kenya). Web sites related to individual citations in the case studies are included, when available, in the references listed below under References and Bibliography.

There is extensive literature in print and on the Web on such forms of urbanization as urban sprawl and urban infill, and on such impacts of urbanization as habitat fragmentation, edge effects, human-wildlife conflicts, and fire along the wildland-urban interface. Cited in the case studies or under Lessons Learned are print publications and Web sites related to lesser-known impacts of urbanization such as light pollution; tools such as buffer zones and wildlife corridors; and themes such as climate change, population trends, and corruption.

Broadly focused resources

There is no central source of information on the impacts of urbanization on protected areas.

The Web site of the Task Force on Cities and Protected Areas of the IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas has articles, news, and links to other resources on connections between cities and conservation: http://www.InterEnvironment.org/pa.

There are numerous books about cities in a global context. Good recent surveys include Reader 2004 and Amin and Thrift 2002, although they pay little attention to the natural environment. Hardoy et al. 2001 focuses on cities in developing countries. Lewis Mumford (1938, 1961) had a sensitive appreciation of the interdependence of urban, rural, and wild; his frequently cited works on cities are classics.  

Among Web sites on urban affairs, Urbanicity is especially useful: http://www.urbanicity.org.

Google Earth, http://earth.google.com, provides detailed satellite imagery for most of the places mentioned in this paper, although using it requires patience for first-time users. Especially striking are the images of the wildland-urban interfaces along the boundaries of Nairobi (Kenya) and Table Mountain (South Africa) national parks, the Tijuana River National Estuarine Research Reserve (California), and Hong Kong’s Country and Marine Parks (China), as well as the ribbon development along the north side of Joshua Tree National Park (California).

8.  NOTES

1.  President, California Institute of Public Affairs / InterEnvironment; Task Force Leader, Cities and Protected Areas, IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas; former IUCN councilllor and commission chair; Senior Associate, School of Politics and Economics, Claremont Graduate University; Fellow of the World Academy of Art and Science. Address: P.O. Box 189040, Sacramento, California 95818, USA. Biography and contact information: www.InterEnvironment.org/cipa/ttbioshort.htm.

2.  Population and economic data for countries are from Population Reference Bureau 2006, in which per capita income is figured using the purchasing power parity method.  Unless otherwise noted, population figures for subnational units are from Brinkhoff 2006 or government sources.

3.  Terms used to describe the size or character of urban areas are rarely precise. Following are some generally accepted definitions. They relate to space and people, rather than governmental jurisdictions (i.e., in some countries cities, towns, villages, or even hamlets are local government entities).

·         Human settlement: Embraces all forms of settlements, from hamlets to megacities

·         Hamlet: A settlement smaller than a village

·         Village: According to Reader (2004, 26), only farmers live in villages, while a key defining feature of a town or city is that farmers don’t live in them

·         Town: A compactly settled area, usually larger than a village but smaller   than a city  

·         City: A large or important populated place larger than a town

·         Micropolis: A growing smaller city removed from metropolises

·         Metropolis: An important city and the densely populated surrounding areas that are socially and economically integrated with it (the word is from the Greek, meaning mother city)

·         Urban agglomeration: Includes a central city and neighboring cities linked to it, e.g., by continuous built-up areas or commuters. All such areas with populations of one million or more are listed by size in Brinkhoff 2006.

·         Megacity: An urban agglomeration of 10 million or more

·         Megapolis or mega-region: An integrated network of metropolitan and micropolitan areas; these are discussed under “The Californias”

·         Megalopolis: See Note 4

4.  Elizabeth Baigent (2004) explains that the term “megalopolis,” meaning a large city, was in use in the general press by the 1820s. However, it was employed in the 20th century by Patrick Geddes and Lewis Mumford to “denote an overlarge city doomed to destruction.” Later, Jean Gottmann (1961) used it to describe a large and highly connected urban region in the northeastern U.S.

5.  Size of protected areas is based on current information from the agencies responsible or, if not available from them, the World Database on Protected Areas (UNEP 2006).

6.  IUCN has defined six protected area management categories, based on primary management objective. These are explained in the Web site of the World Database on Protected Areas (UNEP 2006), which lists such areas by country and type. However, the Database is incomplete and is in the process of being updated. Categories for the protected areas described in this paper follow those given in the Database unless more current information has been available from reliable national sources. In addition: (a) some areas mentioned in this paper, such as urban nature reserves, are too small to be listed in the database; (b) large parts of some protected areas have management objectives different from those of the unit as a whole; for example, most of Joshua Tree National Park, an IUCN Category II protected area, is wilderness (IUCN Category 1b). Revision of definitions of IUCN protected area categories is under consideration. 

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